(1) A small drop of blood (2-3 mm in diameter) is placed in the center line about 1 cm away from one end of a glass slide (typical size of slide is 75 × 25 mm; thickness about 1mm) with a wooden stick or glass capillary. Slide should be clean, dry, and...

Thrombin time assesses the final step of coagulation i.e. conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin. Principle Thrombin is added to patient’s plasma and time required for clot formation is noted. Equipment Water bath at 37°C Test tubes (75 × 12...

PT assesses coagulation factors in extrinsic pathway (F VII) and common pathway (F X, F V, prothrombin, and fibrinogen). PT assesses coagulation factors in extrinsic pathway (F VII) and common pathway (F X, F V, prothrombin, and fibrinogen). Principle...

APTT is a measure of coagulation factors in intrinsic pathway (F XII, F XI, high molecular weight kininogen, prekallikrein, F IX, and F VIII) and common pathway (F X, F V, prothrombin, and fibrinogen). APTT is a measure of coagulation factors in...

In humans, hemoglobin is not homogeneous, and normally different variants and derivatives exist. Normal hemoglobin variants are fetal hemoglobin (Hb F), adult hemoglobin (Hb A), Hb A2, and embryonic hemoglobins (Gower I, Gower II, and Portland)....

Clinical laboratory workers encounter a variety of occupational hazards, including exposure to infectious agents. The routes of pathogen exposure associated with laboratory work include ingestion, inhalation, direct inoculation, and contamination of...

There are many factors that contribute to accurate test results in the chemistry laboratory. These factors can be broken down into three areas: preanalytical, analytical and post analytical. Preanalytical variables account for 32-75% of laboratory...

Routine urinalysis is a cost-effective, non-invasive test used as an indicator of health or disease for metabolic and renal disorders, infection, drug abuse, pregnancy, and nutrition. Routine urinalysis is a cost-effective, non-invasive test used as an...

Shark two eyes are present on the head. They are located in the orbits and are laterally directed. Shark two eyes are present on the head. They are located in the orbits and are laterally directed. The eye is large in size and elliptical body. It is a...

In Shark 3 pair of internal ears are present. They are organs of equilibrium and hearing. The middle and external ears are absent. The internal ear is a complex structure. It is called the membranous labyrinth. In Shark 3 pair of internal ears are...

Sycon is a genus of calcareous sponges belonging to the family Sycettidae. These sponges are small, growing up to 7.5 cm with a length from 2.5 to 7.5 cm, and are tube-shaped and often white to cream in colour. Sycon or Scypha is a typical, small...

Contrail, short for "condensation trail," is a common term used to describe the white streaks seen in the sky behind airplanes. These trails are formed when hot exhaust gases from jet engines mix with the cold air in the upper atmosphere. Contrail,...

Learn why mosquitoes are attracted to blue light and discover practical tips to reduce your exposure and stay bite-free. Mosquitoes are pesky insects that can ruin outdoor activities and cause health problems by spreading diseases. One way that...

Whey protein is a type of protein that is derived from milk. It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all nine essential amino acids that the body needs but cannot produce on its own. Whey protein is often used as a dietary supplement by athletes....

In 1887 Leuckart coined the name Coelenterata. This Coelenterata included sponges and Ctenophores. In 1888 Coelenterata is divided into 3 phyla. (1) Spongiaria, (2) Cnidaria, and (3) Ctenophora. Therefore, Cnidaria is the most suitable name for this...

The leeches are common in temperate parts of the world. The common cattle leech is found in India, Burma, and Ceylon. It is found in lakes, ditches, ponds, and slow-moving streams. It is a sanguivorous parasite, (feeds on the blood of cattle). H....

Leech is an ectoparasite, which belongs to Phylum: Annelida Class: Hirudinea Order: Gnathobdellida It has a dorsoventrally compressed body. It swims in the water in search of a suitable host. The transverse section of the leech shows the following...

An intriguing feature where the body is divided into repeated segments, allowing annelids like earthworms and leeches to exhibit remarkable flexibility and specialization. Metamerism in Annelida refers to the remarkable characteristic of these...

Discover the fascinating Palaemon prawn with its advanced nervous system and exceptional sense organs, vital for its success in various aquatic environments. The Palaemon prawn, a captivating marine creature, stands out for its intricate nervous system...

Corals, marine organisms, form intricate structures called reefs. They secrete calcium carbonate exoskeletons, creating diverse habitats. Corals vary in shape, including branching, massive, and plate-like structures. Coral reefs are captivating...