Displaying items by tag: Blood Diseases and Disorders
Thursday, 03 August 2017 13:15
LABORATORY TESTS IN PORPHYRIAS
Porphyrias (from Greek porphura meaning purple pigment; the name is probably derived from purple discoloration of some body fluids during the attack) are a heterogeneous group of rare disorders resulting from disturbance in the heme biosynthetic pathway leading to the abnormal accumulations of red and purple pigments called as porphyrins in the body. Heme, a component of hemoglobin, is synthesized through various steps as shown in Figure 817.1. Each of the steps is catalyzed by a separate enzyme; if any of these steps fails (due to hereditary or acquired cause), precursors of heme (porphyrin intermediates) accumulate in blood, get deposited in skin and other organs, and excreted in urine and feces. Depending on the site of defect, different types of porphyrias are described with varying clinical features, severity, and the nature of accumulated porphyrin.
Porphyria has been offered as a possible explanation for the medieval tales of vampires and werewolves; this is because of the number of similarities between the behavior of persons suffering from porphyria and the folklore (avoiding sunlight, mutilation of skin on exposure to sunlight, red teeth, psychiatric disturbance, and drinking of blood to obtain heme).
Porphyrias are often missed or wrongly diagnosed as many of them are not associated with definite physical findings, screening tests may yield false-negative results, diagnostic criteria are poorly defined and mild disorders produce an enzyme assay result within ‘normal’ range.
Heme is mainly required in bone marrow (for hemoglobin synthesis) and in liver (for cytochromes). Therefore, porphyrias are divided into erythropoietic and hepatic types, depending on the site of expression of disease. Hepatic porphyrias mainly affect the nervous system, while erythropoietic porphyrias primarily affect the skin. Porphyrias are also classified into acute and nonacute (or cutaneous) types depending on clinical presentation (Table 817.1).
Table 817.1 Various classification schemes for porphyrias
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Classification based on predominant clinical manifestations
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Classification based on site of expression of disease
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Classification based on mode of clinical presentation
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Neuropsychiatric
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Hepatic
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Acute
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1. Acute intermittent porphyria
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1. ALA-dehydratase porphyria
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1. ALA-dehydratase porphyria (Plumboporphyria)
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2. ALA-dehydratase porphyria (Plumboporphyria)
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2. Acute intermittent porphyria
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2. Acute intermittent porphyria
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Cutaneous (Photosensitivity)
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3. Hereditary coproporphyria
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3. Hereditary coproporphyria
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1. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria
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4. Variegate porphyria
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4. Variegate porphyria
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2. Porphyria cutanea tarda
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Erythropoietic porphyria
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Non-acute (cutaneous)
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3. Erythropoietic protoporphyria
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1. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria
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1. Porphyria cutanea tarda
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Mixed (Neuropsychiatric and cutaneous)
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2. Erythropoietic protoporphyria
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2. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria
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1. Hereditary coproporphyria
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Hepatic/Erythropoietic
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3. Erythropoietic protoporphyria
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2. Variegate porphyria
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1. Porphyria cutanea tarda
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Inheritance of porphyrias may be autosomal dominant or recessive. Most acute porphyrias are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner (i.e. inheritance of one abnormal copy of gene). Therefore, the activity of the deficient enzyme is 50%. When the level of heme falls in the liver due to some cause, activity of ALA synthase is stimulated leading to increase in the levels of heme precursors up to the point of enzyme defect. Increased levels of heme precursors cause symptoms of acute porphyria. When the heme level returns back to normal, symptoms subside.
Accumulation of porphyrin precursors can occur in lead poisoning due to inhibition of enzyme aminolevulinic acid dehydratase in heme biosynthetic pathway. This can mimick acute intermittent porphyria.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Clinical features of porphyrias are variable and depend on type. Acute porphyrias present with symptoms like acute and severe abdominal pain/vomiting/constipation, chest pain, emotional and mental disorders, seizures, hypertension, tachycardia, sensory loss, and muscle weakness. Cutaneous porphyrias present with photosensitivity (redness and blistering of skin on exposure to sunlight), itching, necrosis of skin and gums, and increased hair growth over the temples (Table 817.2).
Table 817.2 Clinical characteristics of porphyrias
| Porphyria | Deficient enzyme | Clinical features | Inheritance | Initial test |
| 1. Acute intermittent porphyria (AIP)* | PBG deaminase | Acute neurovisceral attacks; triggering factors+ (e.g. drugs, diet restriction) | Autosomal dominant | Urinary PBG; urine becomes brown, red, or black on standing |
| 2. Variegate porphyria | Protoporphyrinogen oxidase | Acute neurovisceral attacks + skin fragility, bullae | Autosomal dominant | Urinary PBG |
| 3. Hereditary coproporphyria | Coproporphyrinogen oxidase | Acute neurovisceral attacks + skin fragility, bullae | Autosomal dominant | Urinary PBG |
| 4. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria | Uroporphyrinogen cosynthase | Onset in infancy; skin fragility, bullae; extreme photosensitivity with mutilation; red teeth and urine (pink red urinestaining of diapers) | Autosomal recessive | Urinary/fecal total porphyrins; ultraviolet fluorescence of urine, feces, and bones |
| 5. Porphyria cutanea tarda* | Uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase | Skin fragility, bullae | Autosomal dominant (some cases) | Urinary/fecal total porphyrins |
| 6. Erythropoietic protoporphyria* | Ferrochelatase | Acute photosensitivity | Autosomal dominant | Free erythrocyte protoporphyrin |
| Disorders marked with * are the three most common porphyrias. PBG: Porphobilinogen |
Symptoms can be triggered by drugs (barbiturates, oral contraceptives, diazepam, phenytoin, carbamazepine, methyldopa, sulfonamides, chloramphenicol, and antihistamines), emotional or physical stress, infection, dieting, fasting, substance abuse, premenstrual period, smoking, and alcohol. Autosomal dominant porphyrias include acute intermittent porphyria, variegate porphyria, porphyria cutanea tarda, erythropoietic protoporphyria (most cases), and hereditary coproporphyria. Autosomal recessive porphyrias include: congenital erythropoietic porphyria, erythropoietic protoporphyria (few cases), and ALAdehydratase porphyria (plumboporphyria).
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
Porphyria can be diagnosed through tests done on blood, urine, and feces during symptomatic period. Timely and accurate diagnosis is required for effective management of porphyrias. Due to the variability and a broad range of clinical features, porphyrias are included under differential diagnosis of many conditions. All routine hospital laboratories usually have facilities for initial investigations in suspected cases of porphyrias; laboratory tests for identification of specific type of porphyrias are available in specialized laboratories.
INITIAL STUDIES
In suspected acute porphyrias (acute neurovisceral attack), a fresh randomly collected urine sample (10-20 ml) should be submitted for detection of excessive urinary excretion of porphobilinogen (PBG) (see Figure 817.2). In AIP, urine becomes red or brown on standing (see Figure 817.3). In suspected cases of cutaneous porphyrias (acute photosensitivity without skin fragility), free erythrocyte protporphyrin or FEP in EDTA blood (for diagnosis of erythrocytic protoporphyria) and for all other cutaneous porphyrias (skin fragility and bullae), examination of fresh, random urine (10-20 ml) and either feces (5-10 g) or plasma for excess porphyrins are necessary (see Figure 817.4 and Table 817.2).
Figure 817.2 Evaluation of acute neurovisceral porphyria
Figure 817.3 Red coloration of urine on standing in acute intermittent porphyria
Figure 817.4 Evaluation of cutaneous porphyrias
Apart from diagnosis, the detection of excretion of a particular heme intermediate in urine or feces can help in detecting site of defect in porphyria. Heme precursors up to coproporphyrinogen III are water-soluble and thus can be detected in urine. Protoporphyrinogen and Protoporphyrin are insoluble in water and are excreted in bile and can be detected in feces. All samples should be protected from light.
Samples required are
- 10-20 ml of fresh random urine sample without any preservative;
- 5-10 g wet weight of fecal sample, and
- blood anticoagulated with EDTA.
Test for Porphobilinogen in Urine
Ehrlich’s aldehyde test is done for detection of PBG. Ehrlich’s reagent (p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) reacts with PBG in urine to produce a red color. The red product has an absorption spectrum with a peak at 553 nm and a shoulder at 540 nm. Since both urobilinogen and porphobilinogen produce similar reaction, further testing is required to distinguish between the two. Urobilinogen can be removed by solvent extraction. (See Watson-Schwartz test). Levels of PBG may be normal or near normal in between attacks. Therefore, samples should be tested during an attack to avoid false-negative results.
Test for Total Porphyrins in Urine
Total porphyrins can be detected in acidified urine sample by spectrophotometry (Porphyrins have an intense absorbance peak around 400 nm). Semiquantitative estimation of porphyrins is possible.
Test for Total Porphyrins in Feces
Total porphyrins in feces can be determined in acidic extract of fecal sample by spectrophotometry; it is necessary to first remove dietary chlorophyll (that also absorbs light around 400 nm) by diethyl ether extraction.
Tests for Porphyrins in Erythrocytes and Plasma
Visual examination for porphyrin fluorescence, and solvent fractionation and spectrophotometry have now been replaced by fluorometric methods.
Further Testing
If the initial testing for porphyria is positive, then concentrations of porphyrins should be estimated in urine, feces, and blood to arrive at specific diagnosis (Tables 817.3 and 817.4).
Table 817.3 Diagnostic patterns of concentrations of heme precursors in acute porphyrias
| Porphyria | Urine | Feces |
| Acute intermittent porphyria | PBG, Copro III | – |
| Variegate porphyria | PBG, Copro III | Proto IX |
| Hereditary coproporphyria | PBG, Copro III | Copro III |
| PBG: Porphobilinogen; Copro III: Coproporphyrinogen III; Proto IX: Protoporphyrin IX |
Table 817.4 Diagnostic patterns of concentrations of heme precursors in cutaneous porphyrias
| Porphyria | Urine | Feces | Erythrocytes |
| Congenital erythropoietic porphyria | Uro I, Copro I | Copro I | – |
| Porphyria cutanea tarda | Uroporphyrin | Isocopro | – |
| Erythropoietic protoporphyria | – | – | Protoporphyrin |
| Uro I: Uroporphyrinogen I; Copro I: Coproporphyrinogen I; Isocopro: Isocoproporphyrinogen |
In latent porphyrias and in patients during remission, porphyrin levels may be normal; in such cases, enzymatic and DNA testing is necessary for diagnosis.
If porphyria is diagnosed, then it is necessary to investigate close family members for the disorder. Positive family members should be counseled regarding triggering factors.
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Thursday, 03 August 2017 11:55
PLATELET GLYCOPROTEIN ANALYSIS
This is done by flow cytometric analysis for detection of lack of GpIb/IX in Bernanrd Soulier syndrome (deficiency of CD42), and lack of GpIIb/IIIa in Glanzmann’s thrombasthenia (deficiency of CD41, CD61).
What is the best protocol for platelet glycoprotein (GPIIb/IIIa) analysis using flow cytometry?
Fresh platelets should always be used. Storing platelets dramatically changes the level of transmembrane proteins. The best way is to follow one of standardized protocols defined in: Immunophenotypic analysis of platelets. Krueger LA, Barnard MR, Frelinger AL 3rd, Furman MI, Michelson AD.Curr Protoc Cytom. 2002 Feb;Chapter 6:Unit 6.10.
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Thursday, 03 August 2017 11:33
TEST FOR D-DIMER
D-dimer is derived from the breakdown of fibrin by plasmin and D-dimer test is used to evaluate fibrin degradation. Blood sample can be either serum or plasma. Latex or polystyrene microparticles coated with monoclonal antibody to D-dimer are mixed with patient’s sample and observed for microparticle agglutination. As the particle is small, turbidometric endpoint can be determined in automated instruments. D-dimer and FDPs are raised in disseminated intravascular coagulation, intravascular thrombosis (myocardial infarction, stroke, venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism), and during postoperative period or following trauma. D-dimer test is commonly used for exclusion of thrombosis and thrombotic tendencies.
Further Reading:
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Thursday, 03 August 2017 08:02
TEST FOR FIBRINOGEN/FIBRIN DEGRADATION PRODUCTS (FDPs)
FDPs are fragments produced by proteolytic digestion of fibrinogen or fibrin by plasmin. For determination of FDPs, blood is collected in a tube containing thrombin (to remove all fibrinogen by converting it into a clot) and soybean trypsin inhibitor (to inhibit plasmin and thus prevent in vitro breakdown of fibrin). A suspension of latex particles linked to antifibrinogen antibodies (or fragments D and E) is mixed with dilutions of patient’s serum on a glass slide. If FDPs are present, agglutination of latex particles occurs (see Figure 814.1). The highest dilution of serum at which agglutination is detected is used to determine concentration of FDPs. Increased levels of FDPs occur in fibrinogenolysis or fibrinolysis. This occurs in disseminated intravascular coagulation, deep venous thrombosis, severe pneumonia, and recent myocardial infarction.
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Friday, 28 July 2017 05:05
Platelet Aggregation Studies
Platelet aggregation tests are carried out in specialized hematology laboratories if platelet dysfunction is suspected. These tests are usually indicated in patients presenting with mucocutaneous type of bleeding and in whom screening tests reveal normal platelet count, prolonged bleeding time, normal prothrombin time, and normal activated partial thromboplastin time.
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Wednesday, 26 July 2017 12:45
MORPHOLOGY OF PLATELETS
Platelets are small, 1-3 μm in diameter, purple structures with tiny irregular projections on surface. In blood films prepared from non-anticoagulated blood (i.e. direct fingerstick), they occur in clumps. If platelet count is done on automated blood cell counters using EDTA-anticoagulated blood sample, about 1% of persons show falsely low count due to the presence in them of EDTA dependent antiplatelet antibody. Examination of a parallel blood film is useful in avoiding the false diagnosis of thrombocytopenia in such cases. Occasionally, platelets show rosetting around neutrophils (platelet satellitism) (see Figure 802.1). This is seen in patients with platelet antibodies and in apparently normal persons. Blood smear examination can be helpful in determining underlying cause of thrombocytopenia such as leukemia, lymphoma, or microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (Box 802.1).Also Read:
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Wednesday, 26 July 2017 11:28
NUMERICAL ABNORMALITIES OF LEUKOCYTES
For meaningful interpretation, absolute count of leukocytes should be reported. These are obtained as follows:
Absolute Leukocyte Count = Leukocyte% × Total Leukocyte Count/ml
Neutrophilia:
An absolute neutrophil count greater than 7500/μl is termed as neutrophilia or neutrophilic leukocytosis.
Causes
- Acute bacterial infections: Abscess, pneumonia, meningitis, septicemia, acute rheumatic fever, urinary tract infection.
- Tissue necrosis: Burns, injury, myocardial infarction.
- Acute blood loss
- Acute hemorrhage
- Myeloproliferative disorders
- Metabolic disorders: Uremia, acidosis, gout
- Poisoning
- Malignant tumors
- Physiologic causes: Exercise, labor, pregnancy, emotional stress.
Leukemoid reaction: This refers to the presence of markedly increased total leukocyte count (>50,000/cmm) with immature cells in peripheral blood resembling leukaemia but occurring in non-leukemic disorders (see Figure 801.2). Its causes are:
- Severe bacterial infections, e.g. septicemia, pneumonia
- Severe hemorrhage
- Severe acute hemolysis
- Poisoning
- Burns
- Carcinoma metastatic to bone marrow Leukemoid reaction should be differentiated from chronic myeloid leukemia (Table 801.1).
Table 801.1 Differences between leukemoid reaction and leukemia
Figure 801.2 Leukemoid reaction in blood smear
Absolute neutrophil count less than 2000/μl is neutropenia. It is graded as mild (2000-1000/μl), moderate (1000-500/μl), and severe (< 500/μl).
Causes
I. Decreased or ineffective production in bone marrow:
- Infections
(a) Bacterial: typhoid, paratyphoid, miliary tuberculosis, septicemia
(b) Viral: influenza, measles, rubella, infectious mononucleosis, infective hepatitis.
(c) Protozoal: malaria, kala azar
(d) Overwhelming infection by any organism - Hematologic disorders: megaloblastic anemia, aplastic anemia, aleukemic leukemia, myelophthisis.
- Drugs:
(a) Idiosyncratic action: Analgesics, antibiotics, sulfonamides, phenothiazines, antithyroid drugs, anticonvulsants.
(b) Dose-related: Anticancer drugs - Ionizing radiation
- Congenital disorders: Kostman's syndrome, cyclic neutropenia, reticular dysgenesis.
II. Increased destruction in peripheral blood:
- Neonatal isoimmune neutropaenia
- Systemic lupus erythematosus
- Felty's syndrome
III. Increased sequestration in spleen:
- Hypersplenism
Eosinophilia:
This refers to absolute eosinophil count greater than 600/μl.
Causes
- Allergic diseases: Bronchial asthma, rhinitis, urticaria, drugs.
- Skin diseases: Eczema, pemphigus, dermatitis herpetiformis.
- Parasitic infection with tissue invasion: Filariasis, trichinosis, echinococcosis.
- Hematologic disorders: Chronic Myeloproliferative disorders, Hodgkin's disease, peripheral T cell lymphoma.
- Carcinoma with necrosis.
- Radiation therapy.
- Lung diseases: Loeffler's syndrome, tropical eosinophilia
- Hypereosinophilic syndrome.
Basophilia:
Increased numbers of basophils in blood (>100/μl) occurs in chronic myeloid leukemia, polycythemia vera, idiopathic myelofibrosis, basophilic leukemia, myxedema, and hypersensitivity to food or drugs.
Monocytosis:
This is an increase in the absolute monocyte count above 1000/μl.
Causes
- Infections: Tuberculosis, subacute bacterial endocarditis, malaria, kala azar.
- Recovery from neutropenia.
- Autoimmune disorders.
- Hematologic diseases: Myeloproliferative disorders, monocytic leukemia, Hodgkin's disease.
- Others: Chronic ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, sarcoidosis.
Lymphocytosis:
This is an increase in absolute lymphocyte count above upper limit of normal for age (4000/μl in adults, >7200/μl in adolescents, >9000/μl in children and infants) (Box 801.1).Causes
- Infections:
(a) Viral: Acute infectious lymphocytosis, infective hepatitis, cytomegalovirus, mumps, rubella, varicella
(b) Bacterial: Pertussis, tuberculosis
(c) Protozoal: Toxoplasmosis - Hematological disorders: Acute lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, multiple myeloma, lymphoma.
- Other: Serum sickness, post-vaccination, drug reactions.
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Wednesday, 26 July 2017 08:33
WHITE BLOOD CELLS MORPHOLOGY
Approximate idea about total leukocyte count can be gained from the examination of the smear under high power objective (40× or 45×). A differential leukocyte count should be carried out. Abnormal appearing white cells are evaluated under oil-immersion objective.
Morphology of normal leukocytes (see Figure 800.1):
- Polymorphonuclear neutrophil: Neutrophil measures 14-15 μm in size. Its cytoplasm is colorless or lightly eosinophilic and contains multiple, small, fine, mauve granules. Nucleus has 2-5 lobes that are connected by fine chromatin strands. Nuclear chromatin is condensed and stains deep purple in color. A segmented neutrophil has at least 2 lobes connected by a chromatin strand. A band neutrophil shows non-segmented U-shaped nucleus of even width. Normally band neutrophils comprise less than 3% of all leukocytes. Majority of neutrophils have 3 lobes, while less than 5% have 5 lobes. In females, 2-3% of neutrophils show a small projection (called drumstick) on the nuclear lobe. It represents one inactivated X chromosome.
- Eosinophil: Eosinophils are slightly larger than neutrophils (15-16 μm). The nucleus is often bilobed and the cytoplasm is packed with numerous, large, bright orange-red granules. On blood smears, some of the eosinophils are often ruptured.
- Basophils: Basophils are seen rarely on normal smears. They are small (9-12 μm), round to oval cells, which contain very large, coarse, deep purple granules. It is difficult to make out the nucleus since granules cover it.
- Monocytes: Monocyte is the largest of the leukocytes (15-20 μm). It is irregular in shape, with oval or clefted (kidney-shaped) nucleus and fine, delicate chromatin. Cytoplasm is abundant, bluegray with ground glass appearance and often contains fine azurophil granules and vacuoles. After migration to the tissues from blood, they are called as macrophages.
- Lymphocytes: On peripheral blood smear, two types of lymphocytes are distinguished: small and large. The majority of lymphocytes are small (7-8 μm). These cells have a high nuclearcytoplasmic ratio with a thin rim of deep blue cytoplasm. The nucleus is round or slightly clefted with coarsely clumped chromatin. Large lymphocytes (10-15 μm) have a more abundant, pale blue cytoplasm, which may contain a few azurophil granules. Nucleus is oval or round and often placed on one side of the cell.
Figure 800.1 Normal mature white blood cells in peripheral blood
Morphology of abnormal leukocytes:
Toxic granules: These are darkly staining, bluepurple, coarse granules in the cytoplasm of neutrophils. They are commonly seen in severe bacterial infections.- Döhle inclusion bodies: These are small, oval, pale blue cytoplasmic inclusions in the periphery of neutrophils. They represent remnants of ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum. They are often associated with toxic granules and are seen in bacterial infections.
- Cytoplasmic vacuoles: Vacuoles in neutrophils are indicative of phagocytosis and are seen in bacterial infections.
- Shift to left of neutrophils: This refers to presence of immature cells of neutrophil series (band forms and metamyelocytes) in peripheral blood and occurs in infections and inflammatory disorders.
- Hypersegmented neutrophils: Hypersegmentation of neutrophils is said to be present when >5% of neutrophils have 5 or more lobes. They are large in size and are also called as macropolycytes. They are seen in folate or vitamin B12 deficiency and represent one of the earliest signs.
- Pelger-Huet cells: In Pelger-Huet anomaly (a benign autosomal dominant condition), there is failure of nuclear segmentation of granulocytes so that nuclei are rod-like, round, or have two segments. Such granulocytes are also observed in myeloproliferative disorders (pseudo-Pelger-Huet cells).
- Atypical lymphocytes: These are seen in viral infections, especially infectious mononucleosis. Atypical lymphocytes are large, irregularly shaped lymphocytes with abundant cytoplasm and irregular nuclei. Cytoplasm shows deep basophilia at the edges and scalloping of borders. Nuclear chromatin is less dense and occasional nucleolus may be present.
- Blast cells: These are most premature of the leukocytes. They are large (15-25 μm), round to oval cells, with high nuclear cytoplasmic ratio. Nucleus shows one or more nucleoli and nuclear chromatin is immature. These cells are seen in severe infections, infiltrative disorders, and leukemia. In leukemia and lymphoma, blood smear suggests the diagnosis or differential diagnosis and helps in ordering further tests (see Figure 800.2 and Box 800.1).
Figure 800.2 Morphological abnormalities of white blood cells: (A) Toxic granules; (B) Döhle inclusion body; (C) Shift to left in neutrophil series; (D) Hypersegmented neutrophil in megaloblastic anemia; (E) Atypical lymphocyte in infectious mononucleosis; (F) Blast cell in acute leukemia
Further Reading:
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Tuesday, 25 July 2017 13:19
RED CELLS MORPHOLOGY
Red cells are best examined in an area where they are just touching one another (towards the tail of the film). Normal red cells are 7-8 μm in size, round with smooth contours, and stain deep pink at the periphery and paler in the center. Area of central pallor is about 1/3rd the diameter of the red cell. Size of a normal red cell corresponds roughly with the size of the nucleus of a small lymphocyte. Normal red cells are described as normocytic (of normal size) and normochromic (with normal staining intensity i.e. hemoglobin content).Morphologic abnormalities of red cells in peripheral blood smear can be grouped as follows:
- Red cells with abnormal size (see Figure 799.1)
- Red cells with abnormal staining
- Red cells with abnormal shape (see Figure 799.1)
- Red cell inclusions (see Figure 799.2)
- Immature red cells (see Figure799.3)
- Abnormal red cell arrangement(see Figure 799.4).
Red cells with abnormal size:
Mild variation in red cell size is normal. Increased variation in red cell size is called as anisocytosis. This is a feature of most anemias and is non-specific. Anisocytosis is due to the presence of microcytes, macrocytes, or both in addition to red cells of normal size.
Microcytes are red cells smaller in size than normal. They are seen when hemoglobin synthesis is defective i.e. in iron deficiency anemia, thalassemias, anemia of chronic disease, and sideroblastic anemia.
Macrocytes are red cells larger in size than normal. Oval macrocytes (macro-ovalocytes) are seen in megaloblastic anemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, and in patients being treated with cancer chemotherapy. Round macrocytes are seen in liver disease, alcoholism, and hypothyroidism.
Red cells with abnormal staining (hemoglobin content):
Staining intensity of red cells depends on hemoglobin content. Red cells with increased area of central pallor (i.e. containing less hemoglobin) are called as hypochromic. They are seen when hemoglobin synthesis is defective, i.e. in iron deficiency, thalassemias, anaemia of chronic disease, and sideroblastic anemia.
In dimorphic anemia, there are two distinct populations of red cells in the same smear. An example is presence of both normochromic and hypochromic red cells seen in sideroblastic anemia, iron deficiency anemia responding to treatment, and following blood transfusion in a patient of hypochromic anemia. In myelodysplastic syndrome, dimorphic picture results from admixture of microcytic hypochromic cells and macrocytes.
Red cells with abnormal shape:
Increased variation in red cell shape is called as poikilocytosis and is a feature of many anemias. A red cell that is abnormal in shape is called as a poikilocyte.
Sickle cells are narrow and elongated red cells with one or both ends pointed. Sickle form is assumed when a red cell containing hemoglobin S is deprived of oxygen. Sickle cells are seen in sickle cell disorders, particularly sickle cell anemia. Sickle cells are not seen on blood smear in neonates with sickle cell disease because high percentage of fetal hemoglobin in red cells prevents sickling.
Spherocytes are red cells, which are slightly smaller in size than normal, round, stain intensely, and do not have central area of pallor. The surface area of spherocytes is less as compared to the volume. They are seen in hereditary spherocytosis, autoimmune hemolytic anemia (warm antibody type), and ABO hemolytic disease of newborn.
Schistocytes are fragmented red cells, which take various forms like helmet, crescent, triangle, etc. and usually have surface projections or spicules. They are seen in microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, cardiac valve prosthesis, and severe burns.
Target cells are red cells with bull's eye appearance. These red cells show a central stained area and a peripheral stained rim with unstained cytoplasm in between. They are seen in hemoglobinopathies (e.g. thalassemias, hemoglobin disease, sickle cell disease), obstructive jaundice, and following splenectomy.disease, sickle cell disease), obstructive jaundice, and following splenectomy.
Burr cells or echinocytes are small red cells with regularly placed small projections on surface. They are seen in uremia.
Acanthocytes are red cells with irregularly spaced sharp projections of variable length on surface. They are seen in spur cell anemia of liver disease, McLeod phenotype, and following splenectomy.
Teardrop cells or dacryocytes have a tapering droplike shape. Numerous teardrop red cells are seen in myelofibrosis and myelophthisic anemia.
Blister cells or hemi ghost cells are irregularly contracted cells in which hemoglobin is contracted and condensed away from the cell membrane. This is seen in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase defici-ency during acute hemolytic episode.
Bite cells result from removal of Heinz bodies by the pitting action of the spleen (i.e. a part of red cell is bitten off by the splenic macrophages). They are seen in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogena-se deficiency and unstable hemoglobin disease.
Red cell inclusions:
Those inclusions that can be visualized on Romanowsky-stained smears are basophilic stippling, Howell-Jolly bodies, Pappenheimer bodies, and Cabot's rings.
Basophilic stippling or punctate basophilia refers to the presence of numerous, irregular basophilic (purple-blue) granules which are uniformly distributed in the red cell. These granules represent aggregates of ribosomes. Their presence is indicative of impaired erythropoiesis and they are seen in thalassemias, megaloblastic anemia, heavy metal poisoning (e.g. lead), and liver disease.cell. These granules represent aggregates of ribosomes. Their presence is indicative of impaired erythropoiesis and they are seen in thalassemias, megaloblastic anemia, heavy metal poisoning (e.g. lead), and liver disease.
Figure 799.2 Red cell inclusions: (A) Basophilic stippling; (B) Howell-Jolly bodies; (C) Pappenheimer bodies; (D) Cabot’s ring
Howell-Jolly bodies are small, round, purple-staining nuclear remnants located peripherally in red cells. They are seen in megaloblastic anemia, thalasse-mias, hemolytic anemia, and following splenectomy.
Pappenheimer bodies are basophilic, small, ironcontaining granules in red cells. They give positive Perl's Prussian blue reaction. Unlike basophilic stippling, Pappenheimer bodies are few in number and are not distributed throughout the red cell. They are seen following splenectomy and in thalassemias and sideroblastic anemia.
Cabot's rings are fine, reddish-purple or red, ring-like structures. They appear like loops or figure of eight structures. They indicate impaired erythropoiesis and are seen in megaloblastic anemia and lead poisoning.
Immature red cells:
Polychromatic cells are young red cells containing remnants of ribonucleic acid. These cells are slightly larger than normal red cells and have a diffuse bluishgrey tint. (They represent reticulocytes when stained with a supravital stain like new methylene blue). Polychromasia is due to the uptake of acid stain by hemoglobin and basic stain by ribonucleic acid. Presence of polychromatic cells is indicative of active erythropoiesis and are increased in hemolytic anemia, acute blood loss, and following specific therapy for nutritional anemia.and are increased in hemolytic anemia, acute blood loss, and following specific therapy for nutritional anemia.
Nucleated red cells are red cell precursors (erythroblasts), which are released prematurely in peripheral blood from the bone marrow. They are a normal finding in cord blood of newborns. Large number of nucleated red cells in blood smear is seen in hemolytic disease of newborn, hemolytic anemia, leukemias, myelophthisic anemia, and myelofibrosis.
Figure 799.3 Immature red cells: (A) Polychromatic red cell; (B) Nucleated red cell
Abnormal red cell arrangement:
Rouleaux formation refers to alignment of red cells on top of each other like a stack of coins. It occurs in multiple myeloma, Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, hypergammaglobulinemia, and hyper fibrinogenemia.
Figure 799.4 Abnormal red cell arrangement: (A) Rouleaux formation; (B) Autoagglutination
Autoagglutination refers to the clumping of red cells in large, irregular groups on blood smear. It is seen in cold agglutinin disease. Role of blood smear in anemia is shown in Box 799.1 and Figures 799.5 to 799.7.
Figure 799.5 Differential diagnosis of macrocytic anemia on blood smear: (A) Megaloblastic anemia; (B) Hemolytic anemia; (C) Liver disease; (D) Myelodysplastic syndrome
Figure 799.6 Differential diagnosis of microcytic anemia on blood smear: (A) Iron deficiency anemia; (B) Thalassemia minor; (C) Thalassemia major; (D) Sideroblastic anemia
Figure 799.7 Differential diagnosis of hemolytic anemia on blood smear. (A) Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia showing fragmented red cells, (B) Hereditary spherocytosis showing spherocytes and a polychromatic red cell, and (C) Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency showing a blister cell and a bite cell
Further Reading:
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Hemotology
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