Detection of a fake or adulterated urine sample is necessary before going to the further process of urine testing in the laboratory. Urine adulteration causes false-positive and false-negative results. However, most attempts of a fake or adulteration in a urine sample can be detected either by a trained collection site personnel or by a laboratory technician during the testing process.…

WARTS A wart is a viral infection of the surface layers of the skin. The incubation period varies from a few weeks to several months. Warts can be spread by direct or indirect contact with a wart to damaged skin. CORNS A corn is a small, hardened area of skin which often looks yellow compared to the surrounding skin. It is typically round…

Why is this test performed? This test is performed for the diagnosis and differentiation of jaundice. This test is also done in a patient with hemolytic anemia in adult and newborn. This test is very useful to evaluate liver functions and for the follow-up of a patient with treatment. Collection of sample This test is performed with the patient's serum.…

Why is this test performed? This test is evaluated in different conditions and diseases such as nephrotic syndrome, liver diseases, kidney diseases, in a patient suspected of malnutrition, and patients severe burn. See also: Procedures for the collection of blood for hemotological investigations. Collection of sample For the estimation of serum albumin, patient's serum is needed. A random blood sample…

The “pearl” is literally formed by the mantle epithelium, which becomes deposit around any external body or particles, these external particle or body invade in between the shell and mantle in any way. Pearl is secreted by the mantle as a means of protection against a small external particle. When an external particle or body, such as a grain of sand…

Anatomically, stomach is divided into four parts: cardia, fundus, body, and pyloric part. Cardia is the upper part surrounding the entrance of the esophagus and is lined by the mucus-secreting epithelium. The epithelium of the fundus and the body of the stomach is composed of different cell types including: (i) mucus-secreting cells which protect gastric mucosa from self-digestion by forming…

Gastric intubation for gastric analysis is contraindicated in esophageal stricture or varices, active nasopharyngeal disease, diverticula, malignancy, recent history of severe gastric hemorrhage, hypertension, aortic aneurysm, cardiac arrhythmias, congestive cardiac failure, or non-cooperative patient. Pyloric stenosis: Obstruction of gastric outlet can elevate gastric acid output due to raised gastrin (following antral distension). Pentagastrin stimulation is contraindicated in cases with allergy…

Hollander’s test (Insulin hypoglycemia test): In the past, this test was used for confirmation of completeness of vagotomy (done for duodenal ulcer). Hypoglycemia is a potent stimulus for gastric acid secretion and is mediated by vagus nerve. This response is abolished by vagotomy. In this test, after determining BAO, insulin is administered intravenously (0.15-0.2 units/kg) and acid output is estimated…

In gastric analysis, amount of acid secreted by the stomach is determined on aspirated gastric juice sample. Gastric acid output is estimated before and after stimulation of parietal cells (i.e. basal and peak acid output). This test was introduced in the past mainly for the evaluation of peptic ulcer disease (to assess the need for operative intervention). However, diminishing frequency…

To assess gastric acid secretion, acid output from the stomach is measured in a fasting state and after injection of a drug which stimulates gastric acid secretion. Basal acid output (BAO) is the amount of hydrochloric acid (HCl) secreted in the absence of any external stimuli (visual, olfactory, or auditory). Maximum acid output (MAO) is the amount of hydrochloric acid secreted by…