ABO Grouping
There are two methods for ABO grouping:
- Cell grouping (forward grouping): Red cells are tested for the presence of A and B antigens employing known specific anti-A and anti-B (and sometimes anti-A, B) sera.
- Serum grouping (reverse grouping): Serum is tested for the presence of anti-A and anti-B antibodies by employing known group A and group B reagent red cells.
Both cell and serum grouping should be done since each test acts as a check on the other.
There are three methods for blood grouping: slide, tube and microplate. Tube and microplate methods are better and are employed in blood banks.
Further Reading:
- Autoagglutination: Presence of IgM autoantibodies reactive at room temperature in patient’s serum can lead to autoagglutination. If autocontrol is not used, blood group in such a case will be wrongly typed as AB. Therefore, for correct result, if autocontrol is also showing agglutination, cell grouping should be repeated after washing red cells with warm saline, and serum grouping should be repeated at 37°C.
- Rouleaux formation: Rouleux formation refers to red cells adhering to each other like a stack of coins and can be mistaken for agglutination. Rouleaux formation is caused by high levels of fibrinogen, immunoglobulins, or intravenous administration of a plasma expander such as dextran. Rouleaux formation (but not agglutination) can be dispersed by addition of normal saline during serum grouping.
- False-negative result due to inactivated antisera: For preservation of potency of antisera, they should be kept stored at 4°-6°C. If kept at room temperature for long, antisera are inactivated and will give false-negative result.
- Age: Infants start producing ABO antibodies by 3-6 months of age and serum grouping done before this age will yield false-negative result. Elderly individuals also have low antibody levels.
D antigen is the most immunogenic after ABO antigens and therefore red cells are routinely tested for D. Individuals are called as Rh-positive or Rh-negative depending on presence or absence of D antigen on their red cells. Following transfusion of Rhpositive blood to Rh-negative persons, 70% of them will develop anti Rh-D antibodies. This is of particular importance in women of childbearing age as anti-D antibodies can crosss the placenta during pregnancy and destroy Dpositive fetal red cells and cause hemolytic disease of newborn. In other sensitized individuals, reexposure to D antigen can cause hemolytic transfusion reaction.
In Rh D grouping, patient’s red cells are mixed with anti-D reagent. Serum or reverse grouping is not carried out because most Rhnegative persons do not have anti-D antibodies; anti-D develops in Rh-negative individuals only following exposure to Rh-positive red cells.
Rh typing is done at the same time as ABO grouping. Method of Rh D grouping is similar in principle to ABO grouping. Since serum or reverse grouping is not possible, each sample is tested in duplicate. Dosage effect (stronger antigenantibody reaction in homozygous cells i.e. stronger reaction with DD) is observed with antigens of the Rh system. Autocontrol (patient’s red cell + patient’s serum) and positive and negative controls are included in every test run. Monoclonal IgM anti-D antiserum should be used for cell grouping, which allows Rh grouping to be caried out at the same time as ABO grouping at room temperature. With monoclonal antisera, most weak and variant forms of D antigen are detected and further testing for weak forms of D antigen (Du) is not required. Differences between ABO and Rh grouping are shown in Table 788.1.
Table 788.1 Comparison of ABO grouping and Rh typing
Microplate is a polystyrene plate consisting of 96 micro wells of either U- or V-shape. Grouping is carried out in micro wells. This method is sensitive and ideal for large number of samples (see Figure 787.1).
Further reading: Rh D GROUPING METHOD
Principle
Red cells from the specimen are reacted with reagent antisera (anti-A and anti-B). Agglutination of red cells indicates presence of corresponding antigen (agglutinogen) on red cells.
Specimen
Capillary blood from finger prick, or venous blood collected in EDTA anticoagulant.
Reagents
ABO antisera: See box 786.1 and Figure 786.1.
Box 786.1: ABO antisera
Figure 786.1 Anti-A and anti-B sera used for cell grouping
Method
- A clean and dry glass slide is divided into two sections with a glass marking pencil. The sections are labeled as anti-A and anti-B to identify the antisera (see Figure 786.2).
- Place one drop of anti-A serum and one drop of anti-B serum in the center of the corresponding section of the slide. Antiserum must be taken first to ensure that no reagents are missed.
- Add one drop of blood sample to be tested to each drop of antiserum.
- Mix antiserum and blood by using a separate stick or a separate corner of a slide for each section over an area about 1 inch in diameter.
- By tilting the slide backwards and forwards, examine for agglutination after exactly two minutes.
- Result:
Positive (+): Little clumps of red cells are seen floating in a clear liquid.
Negative (–): Red cells are floating homogeneously in a uniform suspension. - Interpretation: Interpret the result as shown in the Table 786.1 and Figure 786.2.
Table 786.1 Interpretation of cell grouping (forward grouping) by slide test
| Anti-A | Anti-B | Blood Group |
| + | - | A |
| - | + | B |
| + | + | AB |
| - | - | O |
Figure 786.2 Cell grouping by slide method
Slide test is quick and needs only simple equipment. It can be used in blood donation camps and in case of an emergency. However, it is not recommended as a routine test in blood banks since weakly reactive antigens on cells on forward grouping and low titer anti-A and anti-B on reverse grouping may be missed. Also, drying of the reaction mixture at the edges causes aggregation that may be mistaken for agglutination. Results of slide test should always be confirmed by cell and serum grouping by tube method.
Test tube method is more reliable than slide test, but takes longer time and more equipment. For cell grouping, patient’s saline-washed red cells are mixed with known antiserum in a test tube; the mixture is incubated at room temperature, and centrifuged. For serum grouping, patient’s serum is mixed with reagent red cells of known group (available commercially or prepared in the laboratory), incubated at room temperature, and centrifuged (See Table). Following centrifugation, a red cell button (sediment) will be seen at the bottom of the tube. Cell button is dislodged by gently tapping the base of the tube and examined for agglutination.
Positive (+) Test
Clumps of red cells suspended in a clear fluid. Agglutination in tube test is graded from 1+ to 4+ and read macroscopically (See Figure).
Grading of ABO tube test. Negative: Uniform suspension of red cells; Grade 1 (1+): Many small clumps of red cells (fine granular appearance); Grade 2 (2+): Many large clumps with many free red cells; Grade 3 (3+): Three or four individual clumps with few free red cells; and Grade 4 (4+): One solid clump of red cells with no free red cells
Negative (–) Test
Uniform suspension of red cells.
Separate tubes of auto-control, positive control, and negative control should always be setup along with the test sample tube. Auto-control tube consists of mixture of patient’s red cells and patient’s own serum. This is required to rule out false-positive result due to auto antibodies in patient’s serum causing auto agglutination of patient’s own red cells. Auto-control test is particularly essential when ABO grouping is being done only by forward method and blood group is typed as AB. If there are auto antibodies in recipient’s serum, ABO grouping, Rh typing, antibody screening, and cross matching all will show positive result.
In two positive control tubes, anti-A serum is mixed with group. A red cells and anti-B is mixed with group B red cells respectively. In two negative control tubes, anti-A serum is mixed with group B red cells and anti-B serum is mixed with group. A red cells respectively. These controls are necessary to confirm that reagents are working properly.
Interpretation of forward (cell) and reverse (serum) grouping
Why test tube method of blood grouping is more reliable than slide method?
Test tube method of blood grouping is more reliable than slide method. This is because centrifugation enhances the reaction by bringing antigen and antibodies closer together and allows detection of weaker antigen antibody reactions; in addition drying is avoided and smaller amounts of reagent are required.
If forward grouping, reverse grouping, and autocontrol tests are all positive, then these results are probably indicative of a cold-reactive autoantibody. Before performing forward typing, red cells should be washed with normal saline to elute the antibody. Before performing reverse grouping, autoantibody should be adsorbed by washed cells till autocontrol is negative.
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